Mata kuliah Introduction to Linguistic minggu ke-6 ini memberikan materi mengenai sintaks bahasa. Sintaks mempelajari organisasi suatu kata ke suatu  frasa dan dari suatu frasa ke dalam kalimat. Untuk pelajaran lengkap mengenai sintaks ini silakan di baca buku materi pokok Introduction To Linguistic.

Syntax

If we concentrate on the structure and ordering of components within a sentence, it means that we are studying what is technically known as the syntax of the language. Syntax is a branch of linguistic that is concernded with the study of the structure of a sentence and ordering of its elements. Syntax studies the organization of words into phrases and phrases into sentences.

The sentence “The woman drives a car” for instance, started by the word the forms one phrase with the word woman, then the word drives forms one phrases with the word a car. The phrase of The woman then combinated with the phrase of drives a car to form a sentence that is “The woman drives a car”. The phrases of The woman and drives a car is different since they come from different group of words. The phrase of The woman consists of article the and noun woman whereas the phrase of drives a car consists of verb drives and noun a car.

Some properties of the grammar;

Linear Order
The most obvious principle of sentence organization is linear order; the words in a sentence must occur in a particular sequence if the sentence is to convey the desired meaning.

Consider:

1. John glanced at Mary.
   If we rearrange the words in this sentence, we either come up with nonsense, as in:
2. Mary John at glanced.
   or with a sentence whose meaning is distinctly different from that of (1):
3. Mary glanced at John.
   Clearly, the ordering of the words in sentences determines, in part, whether a sentence is grammatical or not, and what the sentence means.
4. One of the many rules of English requires that the grammatical subject of a sentence normally precedes the main verb, which in turn normally precedes its direct object.

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Morphemes and Word Formation-Process

A morpheme can be defined as minimal until having more or less constant meaning associated with more or less constant form. For example the word sellers is made up of three morphemes namely {sell} + {er}+ {s}. Each of these morphemes has a meaning; {sell}= verb ‘sell’; {er}= one who performs an action; {s}= more than one. Another example the word {reopened} consists of three morphemes {re}meaning ‘again’; {open}= verb and {ed} indicating past tense.

Lexical and Grammatical Morphemes
Lexical morphemes have a sense (meaning). Noun such as {car, chair, women}; verbs {come, write, go}; and adjective {sweet, beautiful, empty} are typical of lexical morphemes.

Grammatical morphemes don’t have meanings. Preposition {of, to for, etc}; articles {a, an, the}; and conjunctions {but, and, or}are typical of grammatical morphemes.

Free and Bound Morphemes
Free morphemes are morphemes which can stand by themselves as single words. They maybe lexical {teach, open, car, kind} or they may be grammatical {and, but}

Bound morphemes are morphemes which cannot stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form. For example {re, ir, ed, ly} in words such as return, irregular, visited, and happily.

Derivational Vs Inflectional Morphemes
Derivational morphemes creates new words by either chaning the meaning {happy vs unhappy, both are adjectives} or the part of speech {large vs enlarge, an adjective vs a verb}

Inflectional morphemes change neither parts of speech nor meaning, but give extra grammatical information about the already existing meaning of a word. Example, the word dog and dogs are both nouns and have the same meaning, but dogs with plural morphemes contains the additional information that there are more than one of these things.

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INISIASI 4

Dear students,
We come to the Online Tutorial of Introduction to Linguistics/PBIS4202 for session 4. In this session we are going to discuss material from Module 3, about Phonetics and Phonology, focusing on phonemes. Both phonetics and phonology can be generally described as the study of speech sounds. Before we go on, we need to know about Phonetics and Phonology. Phonetics is concerned with the sounds we make in speech: how we produce them, how these sounds are transferred from the speaker to the hearer as sound waves, and how we hear and perceive them. Phonology is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.

What is a phoneme?

• Trask (1996 : 264) says:
  phoneme (??????) n.’the smallest unit which can make a difference in meaning’….
• Hayman (1975: 59) defines the phoneme as ‘a minimal unit of sound capable of distinguishing words of different meanings. Thus, both /t/ and /d/ are phonemes in English because they are able to make a meaning difference, as in the word ‘ten’ and ‘den’.
• Gleason (1955: 261) defines the phoneme as “a class of sounds which: (1) are phonetically similar and (2) show certain characteristic patterns of distribution in the language or dialect under consideration”.

An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. We know that there are two phonemes /f/ and /v/ in English because they are the only basis of the contrast in meaning between the forms fat and vat, or fine and vine. This contrastive property is the basic operational test for determining the phonemes which exist in a language.

If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example: /p/ can be characterized as [-voice, +bilabial, +stop] and /k/ as [-voice, +velar, +stop]. Since these two sounds share some features, they are sometimes described as members of a natural class of sounds.

The predic¬tion would be that sounds which have features in common would behave phonologically in some similar ways. A sound which does not share those features would be expected to behave differently. For example, /v/ has the features [+voice, +labiodental, +fricative] and so cannot be in the same ‘natural class’ as /p/ and /k/.

Although other factors will be involved, this feature-analysis could lead us to suspect that there may be a good phonological reason why words beginning with /pl-/ and /kl-/ are common in English, but words beginning /vl-/ are not.

Each word consists of phonemes. The word scream has 5 phonemes [????l?]. Now, can you try to count the phonemes of some words given to you? It is a challenge for you. In order to understand better about phonemes, it is better for you to read the materials of module 3 and do the assignment 2 which is attached in this session.

Good Luck!

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INISIASI 3
(SESSION 3)

Dear students,
We come to the Online Tutorial of Introduction to Linguistics/PBIS4202 for the third session. As we have discussed on the second session that it is important to know the characteristics of human language, it is also important for us to know how linguistics can be applied in language teaching. In this session we will discuss the material from Module 2: Trends In Linguistics And Their Implication In Language Teaching, focused on Approaches used in Language Teaching and the implications. There are three prominent approaches, namely structural approach, transformational approach, and functional approach, which we are going to discuss in details. Besides, we also need to understand teaching materials which are developed from structural approach, transformational approach, and functional approach.

1. Structural Approach
This approach is closely related to the grammar-focused teaching. The structuralists believed that language is formed from the smallest units of its sound system. Leonard Bloomfield in his book Language, published in 1933, he stated about structuralism. This model of grammar is still influential and worthy of detailed comment. Structuralists began with the premise that each language was unique and must be described in terms of its own individual patterning. Structuralism was text-based and only interested in language that had actually occurred.

Structuralism focuses on the level of language that examines how words combine into larger units. We shall study only three of these units – the phrase, the clause and the sentence.

There are five commonly occurring types of phrase in English:
noun phrases: e.g. the little dog, a young woman, etc.; adjective phrases: e.g. extremely old, etc.;
verb phrases: e.g. might be closed, etc.; adverb phrases: e.g. very hard, every morning, etc.;
preposition phrases: e.g. on foot, by plane, etc. They also study bigger units of words, clauses and sentences.

In the implications, teachers attempt to ask students analyze the combining words.
For example:

2. Transformational Generative Grammar Approach
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) was introduced by Noam Chomsky in his book Syntactic Structures published in 1957. TG distinguished between competence, and performance, Competence is the perfect storehouse of linguistic knowledge and performance draws on this knowledge but it can be faulty. TG does not use text since it is more interested in what produced the text than in the text itself.

A TG model has four main characteristics:

• It must attempt to make explicit and generate an infinite set of sentences.
  For example, that we have the rules:
  S — NP + VP (sentence can be rewritten as noun phrase + verb phrase).
• Since the model attempts to describe the ideal speaker-hearer’s linguistic knowledge and intuitions, it must be explicit.
• The model must have three components: a phonological component, a syntactic component and a semantic component so that it parallels the speaker’s ability to associate noise and meaning.
• It must be able to assign a structure to all sentences which would be accepted by a native speaker and ‘reject all sentences which would be rejected by a native speaker.

The example of transformation is as follow.

3. Functional Approach

A functional-notional approach concentrates on the purposes for which language is used. A functional-notional approach to language learning places major emphasis on the communicative purpose(s) of a speech act. It focuses on what people want to do or what they want to accomplish through speech. It is functioned to let others know their purpose or aim in speaking in the first place.

The basic communicative purposes of the speaker may be expressed in two principal ways, depending on the function: We would use either A. formulas, that is, fixed expressions; or, B. communicative or functional expressions.
Examples of formulas

• FUNCTION: greeting
  (informal, usable at any time): “Hello”
  (time-bound, formal): “Good evening”
• FUNCTION: leave-taking
  (informal): “So long” or “Bye”
  (formal): “Good-bye”

In all languages generally communicative (func¬tional) expressions can be changed for gender, number, tense, aspect, emphasis, or other communicative purposes.
Example:
FUNCTION: making a suggestion: “How do you feel about going to the beach?” Here the do may become does or remain do with plural nouns or pronouns and you may be substituted by he, she, they, the boys, etc.

Naturally a communicative function can include both a formula and a communicative expression, for example, greeting/expression of concern: “Good morning. How does your mother feel today?
Dear students, good luck.

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Mari kita lihat inisiasi selengkapnya.

..

INISIASI 2

Dear students,

It is very nice to meet you again in the Online Tutorial of Introduction to Linguistics/PBIS4202 for the second session. In this session we will discuss the material from module 1: Language and Linguistics, focused on two topics namely The Definition of Language and The Characteristics of Human Language. Now we will come to the details.

The definition of language is closely related to its characteristics. This particular definition states that ‘language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication’. Ronald Wardhaugh (1972:3) stated that based on the definition the key term in the above definition is ‘system’. Each language contains two systems: a system of sounds and a system of meaning. Beside system, it is also said that language is ‘arbitrary’. It means that we cannot predict exactly which specific features we will find in a particular language if we are unfamiliar with that language or with a related language. The term ‘vocal’ refers to the fact that the primary medium of language is sound, and it is sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are the writing systems. The term ‘symbol’ refers to the fact that there is no connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which those sounds refer.

Human language is related to the term ‘communication’. It means that language is used for communication. Kiat Boey Lim (1975:1) also agrees that language is used for communication, and it is made up of sounds. He also add another feature of human language:
productive or creative: refers to the ability of native speakers to understand and produce any number of sentences (even though those which they have never heard before) in their mother tongue.

Recursion: means that sentences may be produced with other sentences inside them by means of relativization (dependent and independent clauses), or by using conjunction.

arbitrary: The relation between a word and its meaning is a matter of convention. There is no necessary connection between the sounds people use and the topics to which these sounds refer.

social and psychological phenomena: In accordance with language as a social phenomenon, we can see that language is possessed by society; the speech community of a particular language. In other side, language as a psychological phenomenon refers to the fact that language belongs to individual person.

Ben Crane (1981) stated that related to the human communication system, we should note that there are three systems of human communication: in the form of speech, writing, and gesture.

Speech: for most people, speech is the basic system of communication. Speech is arbitrary and segmentable. Some words seem to contradict the principle that the relationship between sounds and meanings has no logical or necessary relationship (arbitrary). There are few words which are called onomatopoeic words. For instances: buzz, swish, bang, meow, etc. Sounds are strung together to form meaning-bearing units, and these units strung together to form sentences.

Writing: allows the preservation of communications over space and through time, and its great importance in human history and in complex societies would be hard to overestimate. Today there are three basic types of writing, namely logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic. Some languages in the world, most notably Chinese, have writing system in which each symbol represents a word; such a writing system is called logographic. The earlier symbols of logographic are mostly pictorial representations which are called pictographs. In a syllabic writing system, each symbol represents a syllable. The examples of this writing system are Egyptian hieroglyphs. Syllabic writing served as the source of alphabetic writing. Alphabetic writing is that each letter represents a particular spoken sound of a language. Most countries, for instances England, Indonesia, etc., use this system of writing. On the other hand, mixed writing system are used by some countries. For examples writing system used in Japan; Kanji are logographs, Hiragana and Katakana are the two Japanese syllabories, and Romaji is the Japanese system of writing that uses the Roman alphabet.

The role of gesture is less obvious. Among the deaf, of course, it may replace speech as the principle form of communication; but for most people it is an important supplement to speech. The term gesture includes all human communication that involves waving of the hands, facial signals, grunts, and other vocalizations that do not make up words. The gesture is frequently called body language. Gesture could be various manipulations of the environment that have communicative intent such as smoke signals. Gesture was basic to the development of human communication and that it is still much used. The widely-discussed forms of gestural communication fall under the heading of kinesics; the study of the positioning and movement of the body and its parts during conversation.

Okay students, that’s our material for this session. I hope this outline can help you understand the material in the module 1. If you get problems, you can contact or email the tutor to get help.

Good Luck.

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Dear students,

Welcome to Online Tutorial of Introduction to Linguistics/PBIS4202 for the first session. In this session you are given the information about this tutorial. The online tutorial is one of learning services given to students of Universitas Terbuka. You are supposed to prepare yourself with the materials discussed during the period of online tutorial. The materials included in this program are the outlines and enrichment of the materials provided in the modules.

There are 8 sessions in this online tutorial and the topics are as follows.
1. Session 1 : Introduction
2. Session 2: The Definition of Language And The Characteristics of Human Language
3. Session 3: Technique and Approaches used in Language Teaching and the implications
4. Session 4: Phonemes
5. Session 5: Morphemes and Word-formation Processes
6. Session 6: Syntax
7. Session 7: Semantic Features
8. Session 8: Language Acquisitions

In order to understand more about the materials in this online tutorial, the tutor also provides 3 assignments which you can download. You can find the assignments on the 3rd , 5th, and 7th session. Beside to help you understand the materials, the submitted answers of the assignments can also support your final score.

If you get problems related to this program, you can directly contact the tutor to get help. The tutor will willingly help you. Please, be active and you will be successful.

Good Luck.

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