Berikut adalah file-file untuk inisiasi 2, 3, 4, 5 dan 6.

INISIASI 3
(SESSION 3)

Dear students,
We come to the Online Tutorial of Introduction to Linguistics/PBIS4202 for the third session. As we have discussed on the second session that it is important to know the characteristics of human language, it is also important for us to know how linguistics can be applied in language teaching. In this session we will discuss the material from Module 2: Trends In Linguistics And Their Implication In Language Teaching, focused on Approaches used in Language Teaching and the implications. There are three prominent approaches, namely structural approach, transformational approach, and functional approach, which we are going to discuss in details. Besides, we also need to understand teaching materials which are developed from structural approach, transformational approach, and functional approach.

1. Structural Approach
This approach is closely related to the grammar-focused teaching. The structuralists believed that language is formed from the smallest units of its sound system. Leonard Bloomfield in his book Language, published in 1933, he stated about structuralism. This model of grammar is still influential and worthy of detailed comment. Structuralists began with the premise that each language was unique and must be described in terms of its own individual patterning. Structuralism was text-based and only interested in language that had actually occurred.

Structuralism focuses on the level of language that examines how words combine into larger units. We shall study only three of these units – the phrase, the clause and the sentence.

There are five commonly occurring types of phrase in English:
noun phrases: e.g. the little dog, a young woman, etc.; adjective phrases: e.g. extremely old, etc.;
verb phrases: e.g. might be closed, etc.; adverb phrases: e.g. very hard, every morning, etc.;
preposition phrases: e.g. on foot, by plane, etc. They also study bigger units of words, clauses and sentences.

In the implications, teachers attempt to ask students analyze the combining words.
For example:

2. Transformational Generative Grammar Approach
Transformational Generative Grammar (TG) was introduced by Noam Chomsky in his book Syntactic Structures published in 1957. TG distinguished between competence, and performance, Competence is the perfect storehouse of linguistic knowledge and performance draws on this knowledge but it can be faulty. TG does not use text since it is more interested in what produced the text than in the text itself.

A TG model has four main characteristics:

• It must attempt to make explicit and generate an infinite set of sentences.
  For example, that we have the rules:
  S — NP + VP (sentence can be rewritten as noun phrase + verb phrase).
• Since the model attempts to describe the ideal speaker-hearer’s linguistic knowledge and intuitions, it must be explicit.
• The model must have three components: a phonological component, a syntactic component and a semantic component so that it parallels the speaker’s ability to associate noise and meaning.
• It must be able to assign a structure to all sentences which would be accepted by a native speaker and ‘reject all sentences which would be rejected by a native speaker.

The example of transformation is as follow.

3. Functional Approach

A functional-notional approach concentrates on the purposes for which language is used. A functional-notional approach to language learning places major emphasis on the communicative purpose(s) of a speech act. It focuses on what people want to do or what they want to accomplish through speech. It is functioned to let others know their purpose or aim in speaking in the first place.

The basic communicative purposes of the speaker may be expressed in two principal ways, depending on the function: We would use either A. formulas, that is, fixed expressions; or, B. communicative or functional expressions.
Examples of formulas

• FUNCTION: greeting
  (informal, usable at any time): “Hello”
  (time-bound, formal): “Good evening”
• FUNCTION: leave-taking
  (informal): “So long” or “Bye”
  (formal): “Good-bye”

In all languages generally communicative (func¬tional) expressions can be changed for gender, number, tense, aspect, emphasis, or other communicative purposes.
Example:
FUNCTION: making a suggestion: “How do you feel about going to the beach?” Here the do may become does or remain do with plural nouns or pronouns and you may be substituted by he, she, they, the boys, etc.

Naturally a communicative function can include both a formula and a communicative expression, for example, greeting/expression of concern: “Good morning. How does your mother feel today?
Dear students, good luck.

File untuk catatan inisiasi ke-3 ini dapat diambil di sini.

Semantik Leksikal

Selamat berjumpa kembali pada tutorial online kali ini. Pada inisiasi III ini Anda akan mendapatkan penjelasan tambahan tentang semantik leksikal. Semantik leksikal berkaitan dengan kajian makna kata atau leksim suatu bahasa. Semantik leksikal merujuk kepada kajian makna leksikal. Makna leksikal (kata) dipengaruhi dua hal, pertama makna kata dapat dijelaskan oleh hubungan antara bahasa dengan objek atau benda, kedua hubungan antara bahasa dengan kata lain yang terdapat pada suatu sistem bahasa. Perhatikan contoh berikut:
He is a bachelor. Kata bachelor dapat dijelaskan maknanya dengan makna kata lain yaitu not married. Kedua kata ini saling berhubungan maknanya. Kata not married sudah cukup untuk menjelaskan makna kata bachelor. Kita tidak perlu menjelaskan makna kata itu dengan cara mengkaitkan dengan objek atau sosok orang yang digambarkan sebagai bachelor.
Contoh lain : Sekarang, si Ani suka memakai baju yang sangat ketat. Kita cukup menjelaskan makna kata ketat dengan kata lain yang sepadan dengan kata itu, misalnya tidak longgar. Dalam khasanah semantik, khususnya semantik leksikal, penjelasan makna kata seperti itu (makna kata berdasarkan kaitannya dengan kata lain) dikenal dengan hubungan makna (sense relation).

Contoh-contoh lain:

• Kata good dalam kalimat He is a good boy, bermakna; not spoiled, being positive, noble, dan lain-lain
• Kata beautiful dalam kalimat She is a beautiful woman bermakna; attractive, having beauty, dan lain-lain
• Kata pandai dalam kalimat Amir cukup pandai, bermakna; tidak bodoh, pintar dan lain-lain
• Hubungan makna kata-kata yang dapat terjadi karena maknanya yang hampir sama itu dikenal dengan istilah sinonim

Hubungan sintagmatik dan paradigmatic
De Saussure, seorang ahli semantik, sebagaimana dikutip oleh Palmer (1981) menyebutkan bahwa terdapat dua hubungan kata yaitu hubungan sintagmatik dan hubungan paradigmatik. Hubungan sintagmatik merujuk pada hubungan antara unsur bahasa (kata dengan kata lainnya) dalam satu unsur yang sama, misalnya kalimat.
Contoh: kata happy dapat berhubungan secara sintagmatik dengan kata lain misalnya student dalam kalimat He is a happy student. Kata beautiful dapat berhubungan dengan kata girl dalam kalimat She is a beautiful girl.
Sementara hubungan paradigmatik merujuk kepada hubungan (makna) antara satu kata dengan kata lainnya yang dapat dipertukarkan.
Contoh: kata happy berhubungan secara paradigmatik (saling dapat dipertukarkan) dengan kata seperti glad, pleased, dan lain-lain
Kata rich berhubungan secara paradigmatik dengan wealthy, prosperous, dll.

Kolokasi
Secara umum kolokasi diartikan sebagai kelaziman kata yang hanya berpasangan/dipertautkan dengan kata-kata tertentu, misalnya kata mengunyah dipasangkan dengan kata mulut\, kata menendang akan berkaitan dengan kata kaki. Kolokasi dapat juga merujuk kepada hubungan makna kata yang satu dengan yang lain yang dapat dipertukarkan. Konsep ini sejalan dengan konsep hubungan paradigmatik. Kata bite berkolokasi hubungan maknanya dengan;
a. cut with teeth
b. mosquites
c. dog

Kata chair berkolokasi dengan sit (sit on the chair), meeting (She will chair the meeting), dan lain-lain. Hubungan kolokatif antar kata juga melahirkan makna tertentu yang dipengaruhi oleh konteks penggunaannya; misalnya kata exceptional pada kalimat an exceptional weather berarti abnormal; tetapi pada kalimat He is an exceptional child dapat berarti kemampuan lebih diluar kelaziman, bukan abnormal artinya. Oleh karena itu, pengetahuan kita yang berhubungan dengan hal ini akan sangat membantu dalam menentukan makna kata tersebut.

Untuk memperjelas materi inisiasi ini Anda bisa membaca Modul 3 BMP Semantics/PRIS4335 dan mengerjakan soal-soal latihan serta test formatifnya.

Salinan catatan dapat diambil di sini.